Task Centred Approach And The Crisis Intervention Social Work Essay

Task Centred Approach And The Crisis Intervention Social Work Essay This short study takes up the evaluation and assessment of two social work intervention theories, namely the Task Centred Approach and the Crisis Intervention Method, with special regard to their implications and applications for social work practice. Social workers, in the course of their practice, are often called upon to help people in coping and dealing with different types of difficulties in their lives. Human beings face situations of crisis at one time or the other during their lives (Roberts, 2000, p 11). The crisis theory postulates that the occurrence of crises is normal to life. Such crisis situations can occur suddenly, like family illnesses or a loss of jobs, or be unpredictable, like entering school or growing older (Roberts, 2000, p 11). Individuals attempt to cope with crises with their available mechanisms, but face problems when such mechanisms do not work or when earlier unresolved crises get reactivated. Social workers are often called upon to intervene with individuals and help them in coping with their crises (Roberts, 2000, p 11). The task-centred approach is a progressive and goal-orientated method for social work practice. It constitutes a practice-based approach that is built on research and is being used in a diverse settings and circumstances (Nash, et al, 2005, p 33).  It represents a social work method wherein clients are assisted in carrying out problem reducing tasks within specific time periods. It is structured, problem focused and time-restricted and is being increasingly used in contemporary social service interventions (Nash, et al, 2005, p 33). Crisis intervention is often grouped together with the task centred approach. Malcolm Payne (1991, p 4) sees significant common ground between crises intervention and task centred approaches to social work practice. Both methods focus on problem solving, deal with brief interventions and are related to learning theory. This essay takes up the examination and assessment of these two theories, with especial regard to their communalities, their differences and their relevance for social work practice. Due regard is given to the implications of anti-oppressive practice. 2. Crisis Intervention Theory The crisis theory states that it is important for people to resolve their crises situations and experiences in order to cope with new developments and crises (Aguilera, 1998, p 47). If individuals are unable to resolve their earlier crises, they become more vulnerable to inability to resolve new crises. Individuals who learn new skills to resolve their crises are on the other hand strengthened in coping with future crisis situations (Aguilera, 1998, p 47). Human beings have considerable capacities for handling or dealing with difficult situations. It is only when such difficulties assume significant proportions and people do not have appropriate resources, personal, emotional, social, spiritual or physical, to deal appropriately with stressful circumstances or events that they become involved in crises. Difficult or stressful events do not by themselves result in crisis situations (Aguilera, 1998, p 47). Crises are actually determined by the responses of individuals to specific stres sful circumstances or events and their responses to them. Crises develop only when individuals perceive specific events to be significant and threatening, try to handle such events with their usual coping strategies without success, and are not able to use other alternatives (Aguilera, 1998, p 47). Behavioural and psychological experts perceive crises to be akin to states of psychological disequilibrium. Individuals experiencing crises are likely to experience a range of emotions like feelings of apprehension, anxiety, fear, guilt and helplessness (Nash, et al, 2005, p 37). Other indicators include alterations in eating and sleeping patterns, activity and energy levels and ability to concentrate. People in crises are also commonly known to suffer from depression and withdraw from social intervention (Nash, et al, 2005, p 37). Social work experts argue that whilst the majority of crises run their course or reach some semblance of stability within one or two months, it is necessary for skilled intervention to take place to strengthen the coping mechanisms of individuals. The failure to do so will result in the existence and continuance of crisis associated behaviours, even as the opportunity for change will be forgone (Nash, et al, 2005, p 37). People in crisis often have little by way of solutions and are receptive to external help and assistance (Roberts, 2000, p 19). The provisioning of skilled intervention by social work practitioners during the occurrence of the crises can result in opportunities for individuals experiencing crisis to learn new skills, achieve beneficial behavioural change, and regain stability. Individuals who have been able to successfully cope with crises are strengthened by such experiences and can use their skills in future times of difficulty (Roberts, 2000, p 19). Crisis intervention is essentially a professional response that is limited in terms of time and is used to assist individuals, families, and groups (Hepworth, et al, 2002, p 83). Social workers aim to assess the openness of individuals experiencing crises to learning of new skills and mechanisms for coping. They also help individuals in reducing their feelings of helplessness, isolation, and distress and use social resources to help in restoring individuals to their prior functional levels, as soon as practically possible (Hepworth, et al, 2002, p 83). Such social work intervention is done through listening, validation, acceptance, normalisation, reassurance, education, advocacy and brokering resources (Nash, et al, 2005, p 38). Crisis intervention can be specifically segregated into 7 stages, namely (a) establishment of communication and development of feelings with individuals that circumstances can become better, (b) assessment of situation, (c) exploration of available strengths and resources, (d) goal setting with the use of such strengths and resources, (e) implementation of plan, teaching of new skills and mobilisation of other support if required, (f) evaluation and adjustment of the plan and (g) follow up and termination of relationship (Hepworth, et al, 2002, p 83). It is important for social workers to be skilled in crisis intervention because of the constant demand upon them for helping people in crisis situations (Roberts, 2000, p 19). Social workers are liable to encounter clients with diverse needs, which may in turn require research, strategic planning and the providing of individualised person centred support (Roberts, 2000, p 19). The nature of crisis intervention work also calls for confidentiality and emotional separation in order to deliver services in a professional manner (Roberts, 2000, p 19). 3. Task Centred Approach The task centred approach emerged in response to the slow and inadequate results that were being achieved through traditional casework methods (Reid, 1997, p 134). Traditional casework methods in social work were felt to be of limited use because of their resource intensive nature, their lack of focus, and their ambiguous outcomes, which were difficult to assess and quantify (Reid, 1997, p 134). Reid and Shyne engaged in extensive study in the late 1960s to explore alternate approaches to casework and developed the task centred approach for social work practice, which called for limited but intensely focused intervention periods. The approach was essentially client oriented and required the social worker to act as a facilitator (Reid, 1997, p 134). With the task centred approach helping clients to improve their difficulties quickly, the process was soon adopted for replication and development in the United Kingdom (Reid, 1997, p 134). Studies on the task centred approach revealed that unfocused help, as was provided by the psycho-social approach and the case study method, over long periods, resulted in reduction of hope and self confidence on the part of the client (Nash, et al, 2005, p 42). It also resulted in negative dependency and unnecessary attachments to specific organisations or particular social workers (Nash, et al, 2005, p 42). It was also seen that the setting of time limits for achievement of specific outcomes helped in building expectations of the possibility of rapid change and enhanced participant energy and motivation (Nash, et al, 2005, p 42). Whilst the task centred approach proved to be practically beneficial for clients and also served, reduce and optimise utilisation of limited social work resources, it also facilitated a shift towards the person centred approach, the negation of the assumption of the professional being the only source of expertise, and helped in achievement of greater empowerment and reduction of oppression (Naleppa Reid, 1998, p 63). The task centred approach calls for attention to be paid to social and external issues that affect individuals rather than on perceiving individuals and their psychological histories to be the main cause of their difficulties (Naleppa Reid, 1998, p 63). The task centred approach involves a structured method wherein the social worker firstly assists the service user in articulating the problems in the ways perceived by service users (Hepworth, et al, 2002, p 87). The social workers subsequently helps the service user to detail and breakdown the problems, taking care to redefine them wherever necessary and helping the service user to locate important areas for action (Hepworth, et al, 2002, p 87). The social worker finally motivates the service user to categorise and prioritise his or her individual problem in line with his or her perceptions (Naleppa Reid, 1998, p 63). The social worker and service user thereafter work in partnership to (a) specify and identify outcomes, (b) agree to contracts and (c) review and assess progress. Social workers who use the task centred approach should be able to positively engage service users and instil trust and confidence (Hepworth, et al, 2002, p 87). Commonalities in Task Centred and Crisis Intervention Approaches Task centred approaches and crisis intervention methods appear to merge well in both theory and practice (Watson, et al, 2002, p 96). Social work research indicates that the use of these methods have proved to be effective with a wide range of clients. Both theories emerged in response to the apparently ineffective outcomes of case work approaches that were grounded in psychodynamic theory (Watson, et al, 2002, p 96). Both methods additionally focus on brief and short term interventions. They are connected to learning theory and based upon problem solving ideas (Watson, et al, 2002, p 96). Both these approaches call upon social workers to engage in participative and joint activity with service users, first to assess and analyse problems and their causes and then take action to deal with such problems (Sandoval, 2002, p 63). The application of these methods thus calls for the use of the person centred theory, the need to place the service user at the centre of the issue and the urgency of viewing the issue from his or her perspective (Sandoval, 2002, p 63). Social workers need to be very good listeners in order to be able to locate the real issues that are troubling service users and thereafter be able to help them with measures to tackle their difficulties (Sandoval, 2002, p 63). Like other social work methods, the task centred approach does have its limitations. It is in the first instance predicated upon the rationality of service users and their willingness to work with social workers (Nash, et al, 2005, p 53). It is also difficult to apply it without appropriate agency support. Despite such limitations the two approaches continue to be very useful, especially because of their instrumentality in increasing empowerment and their integral anti-oppressive approach (Nash, et al, 2005, p 53). The methods increase the abilities of service users through the inculcation of new skills and allow them to deal, not just with their current situations but with future circumstances of difficulty and oppression (Nash, et al, 2005, p 53). Conclusions Social work practice is influenced by many factors that require the taking account of the perspectives of service users, social workers, agencies and society. The approach of individual workers is bound to be influenced by numerous factors that can leave them confused and looking for guidance in their task of assisting service users in difficulties. The task centred approach and the crisis intervention theory provide useful tools to service users to assess the true conditions of service users, participate with them in structured, time bound and joint resolution of problems and empower them to face and overcome oppression. Social workers do however need to understand the implications of these theories and refrain from labeling their actions in all difficult situations to be task centred or critical intervention in nature. The true understanding of the potential and use of these theories will help them significantly in their practice scenarios.

Morals and Ethics of Cloning

Regardless of what our future holds, it will be based on the decisions we make today.   Those decisions can be made using the Utilitarian Theory which states that we are doing good for the greatest number of people.   Using Rule Utilitarianism â€Å"which maintains that a behavioral code or rule is morally right if the consequences of adopting that rule are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone. (IEP)† is justifiably noted that if a consensus is formed on the basis of rules that govern cloning, and these rules are broken, the appropriate punishment will result.This is because cloning a human will not benefit the society as a whole; it would do more harm than good.   We all have rules that govern our society over what is right or wrong and we know that these rules are set forth to maintain order.   We have laws because it benefits the majority of the people.Principles of Consequences state that when looking at the end result, the correct action will be the action that produces the greatest amount of happiness (Usury).   To decide if human cloning produces the greatest amount of happiness we have one question still in need of an answer is â€Å"Are human embryos really human?† Well, the term ‘human' proceeding the term 'embryo' should adequately answer the question.The embryo are cloned from human tissue, contain human DNA, thus there is likely a 100 percent chance that the embryos are indeed human, as opposed to being tadpole embryos. Therefore, biologically speaking a clone is no less a human than you or I. And using that human for tissue simply because he/she was cloned rather than conceived does not validate the notion, nor skip around the moral and ethical implications of taking the life of another human being.   Death is not a happy occasion therefore it does not produce the greatest amount of happiness to the majority of the population.Cloning is the process of taking cells from a donor, placing them in a culture dish where the nutrients are  minimal, so the cells stop dividing and switch their â€Å"active genes†. The cells are then put next to an unfertilized egg. The nucleus is sucked out of the egg leaving an empty egg cell containing all the cellular machinery necessary to produce an embryo. An electric shock is used to fuse the egg and cell together. A second shock is then used to mimic the act of fertilization and help begin cell division. After the egg has successfully moved to the stage of an embryo it is then placed in to the uterus of a surrogate mother. When born, all the genes are the same as the donor of the cell.In 1997 Dr. Ian Wilmut, a British scientist successfully cloned a sheep named Dolly.   This turned the scientific world upside-down. The success of the experiment is considered by all as an amazing achievement in science. However, ethics and morals must surface to regulate cloning. It is understood that individuality is the most important part of life. Individual ity is given to a person at birth and considered a right they will have for rest of their life.There is also a fear that the clone may only be produced to live the life of the clone, thus causing severe emotional damage as well pain and suffering for the clone. The progression of the clone may be limited, the advance in idea development will slowly die off. Evolution could come to a halt, because with clones, diversity will be limited and there will not be as many advances in society. The cells, in all humans, will all be the same and there will not be a process of natural selection and diversity.Another controversial question facing the cloning process is: How will the clones be treated? The emotions of the clones need to be taken in to consideration; after all they are humans too. â€Å"What is common to these various views, however, is a shared understanding that being a ‘person' is different from being the manipulated ‘object' of other peoples desires and expectatio ns†(Biomedical Ethics).   People, as clones, will be studied, prodded, and poked which in turn will cause much unwanted anxiety and emotional distress.There will also be problems with relationships between parents and the clone for understandable reasons.   It will bring up a lot of unwelcome stress for the clone when one â€Å"parent† is an anonymous donor of an egg and the other is Dr. Frankenstein. Some may argue that a child is a child and the parents should love their child unconditionally.   However, the bond between the clone and the parents who care for the clone may have awkward encounters.   The love and affection that is provided for most children will not be the same due to the fact that the clone is considered to be more of an experiment rather than a child. Another argument may be that artificial insemination has already taken the step of engineering babies.   However, artificial insemination is used for parents who can not have children but feel they could provide a loving environment for them.Despite the abundant differences and backgrounds of the world today all most people agree that coitus (sex)  is the naturally preferred way to conceive a child.   With the cloning process the necessity to have coitus will not be needed.   â€Å"Is there something about the individual that is lost when the mystical act of conceiving a person becomes standardized into a mere act of photocopying one† (Time)?The parent's will not have to conceive a child, just order one from a catalog and have it arrive next day air.   It will take away the personal feeling and romance   that having â€Å"a child of   your own† creates. Part of the bliss of having a child is the mystery behind it. Is it a boy? A girl? Who does it look like?   Cloning will take away from the pleasures that have been happening for countless years and the elements of surprise will fade in to mail order babies.Another very touchy issue is the ques tion of, is the medical world   taking to much control?   It is stated by scientists that if they are allowed to clone people, one won't have to worry about organ donations or blood drives in order for people to survive. The scientists will  simply clone an organ and replace the faulty one in the human. As simple as this seems, the issue of who they can use to clone comes up.   Finding the ideal person to clone is hard enough, now try to get one with the right blood type, size, and gender.The numbers decrease and it seems as if the scientists would have to clone someone for each person.   If this is true, would the clones be stored somewhere, or able to roam around the world until they were needed to fill their role?   Once again the rights of the clones come up and the thought of clone farms creates a sort of â€Å"yuck† factor for everyone.According to Time Magazine,   â€Å"Out of 277 tries, the researchers eventually produced only 29 embryos that survived l onger than six days† out of the remaining 29 only one survived and was born. The percentage is very low leaving people wondering if it is  even worth the time and effort put in.   â€Å"Some clones may indeed be growing old before their time†(U.S. News).   The research states that the clones will not live a whole life due to the one cell that has been cloned is older and effects the rest of the clones cells making them advance prematurely.  Ã‚   Instead of using science to lengthen the life of a human cloning will decrease the length of life by half.Scientists need to reconsider how they are manipulating the world.   Based on the information provided through the research, doctors should step back and take a look at the morals and ethics of cloning humans and evaluate if it is really worth the risk doctors are taking.The bad consequences out way the good, therefore we cannot assume that the benefit of human cloning will solve life's problems.   To this day we have yet to find a cure for the common cold.   This is because most diseases have a way of surviving, as did the human race during the ice age.   Everything finds a way to adapt to it's environment and if the benefits major benefit for cloning is to cure diseases, then we are at a loss.   The fight for life â€Å"survival of the fittest† can sum it up.If we result to cloning as a means for reproduction, then who is to say that our bodies might not adapt to this, only allowing for this type of reproduction?   Only then will we realize that in our effort to gain knowledge and power over every other living thing, did we fail.   Everything on this earth has to be in perfect balance, and when we continue to tamper with Mother Nature, she finds a way to fight back.  Ã‚   For example, the ozone layer is being depleted because of chemical agents produced and released into the atmosphere by man.   As a result, the ozone layer can longer protect our skin as it used too, causing more cases of skin cancer every year.   I believe that if you push someone, or in this case, something (Mother Nature) hard enough, she will push back.   We need to take things as they are given to us, the good and the bad.   When we try to beat the odd, sometimes the odds beat us.BibliographyBiomedical Ethics Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego: Greenhaven Press, Inc, 1998 Cloning (1998).   How to Clone a Human (Version 1.1). [On-line] Biofact November 8, 1999. Available: http://www.biofact.com/cloning/human.html Cloning (1998).   Human Cloning Plans.   [On-line] NPR  Ã‚   November 8, 1999 Available â€Å"Dolly, Polly, Gene-send in the clones† Science News.   January 23, 1997.   pp.127 Cloning (1999).   Should Cloning Be Banned?   [On-line] Reasons  Ã‚   November 5, 1999 Available: http://www.reasons.com /biclone.html Kluger, Jeffrey.   â€Å"Goodbye, Dolly† Time  Ã‚   June 7, 1999. pp.70 Nash, J.   â€Å"The Age of Cloning†Ã‚   Time   March 10, 19997. pp.60-75 Macklin, Ruth.   â€Å"Human cloning?   Don't just say no†. U.S. News &World Report. March10, 1997. pp. 64 Couzin, Jennifer   â€Å"What's Killing The Clones?†Ã‚   U.S. News & World Report.   May24, 1999.   pp.65

Concept of ethical relativism Essay

Ethical relativism is the theory that there are no universalized moral standards to apply to all people all the time. The relativity of ethics refers to the ethics may be different in different societies. The same situation and behavior may be morally acceptable in one society but morally unacceptable in another. However, this theory is rejected by most ethicists. First of all, some claim that while the moral practices of societies may differ, the fundamental moral principles do not. Different nations, even the same nation in different times, often pursue different or even inverse ethics. However, the differences can only explain that moral has diversity but cannot deny that moral is universal and general. There is no doubt that ethics such as fairness, honest and self-esteem are applicable and essential to all societies at any time which is ignored by ethical relativism. Furthermore, ethical relativism promotes social inner conformity and causes no room for moral reform or improvement in a society. In addition, members of the same society may hold different views on practices. When the whole society lack of common agreement on certain issues, it’s really hard to declare which is the right behavior. When cross-cultural communication, ethical relativism may provide support for individualism and cause a situation that different social groups only focus on themselves so that go against the agreement with each other. History development is introduced Ethical relativism encompasses views and arguments that people in various cultures have held over several thousand years. For example, the ancient Jaina Anekantavada principle of Mahavira (c. 599 – 527 BC) states that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth; and the Greek philosopher Protagoras (c. 481 – 420 BC) famously asserted that â€Å"man is the measure of all things†. The Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484 – 420 BC) observed that each society regards its own belief system and way of doing things as better than all others. Various other ancient philosophers also questioned the idea of an objective standard of morality. In the early modern era Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) notably held that nothing is inherently good or evil. The 18th-century Enlightenment philosopher David Hume (1711–1776) serves in several important respects as the father both of modern emotivism and of moral relativism, though Hume himself did not espouse relativism. He distinguished between matters of fact and matters of value, and suggested that moral judgments consist of the latter, for they do not deal with verifiable facts obtained in the world, but only with our sentiments and passions. But Hume regarded some of our sentiments as universal. He famously denied that morality has any objective standard, and suggested that the universe remains indifferent to our preferences and our troubles. The levels and types of western ethical relativism. Ethical relativism is an important inclination of thinking. It has many levels and types. Its causes are also very complicated. The experience lesson of western, ethical relativism in theoretical thinking may promote our research of ethics; it has both negative significance and positive significance in practice. Western Ethical Relativism is a completed social and ethical situation. From the development of western thinking, the performances of the Ethical relativism are various. The diversity of the western ethical Relativism can be analyzed from two aspects. First: he levels of western Ethical Relativism In general: The ethical relativism can be divided in three levels: t The ethical relativism in standard level believes that: the accuracy of ethical norm is relative. It doesn’t exist any ethic which is always right. The moral standard is right when in the areas people all think it is right. The ethical relativism in standard level is not always relative; the ethical principles may be relatively or absolutely. The ethical relativism in standard level means that the moral principles we obey in our life is not single, but numerous. The ethical relativism in hierarchy system means that the different ethical systems can explain the same social life in same degree. It advocate that the different or opposite ethical systems are morally. The ethical system that is always right and covers all of the society does not exist. The ethical relativism in principle level is always have the closely connection with the ethical relativism in hierarchy. We can hardly make a distinction between them. Second: The types of western ethical relativism. The ethical relativism can be divided in three types: The cultural ethical relativists believe that the different cultural systems need different moral. Different cultural has its own criterion of right or wrong, goodness or badness. We can’t use unique cultural criterion to judge the behavior of people in other culture. The cultural ethical relativism can be divided into three forms describe, standard and cognitive. The experiential ethical relativism advocates the variable and relative of the moral is not our concept, but the fact. It believes that the different people in different groups have different moral experiences, so the uses of moral principle and moral norm should be vary with each individual. Subjective ethical relativism advocate that the moral is only subjective cognizance of people, and it is also the result of expression of the personal attitude or emotion, psychological requirement. Ethical relativism of two kinds of basic theory form So far, people on the ethical relativism theory form are not form a unified opinion. In examining the many ethical relativism forms have basis, we according to the ethical relativism of the basis of the methodology of shall be classified, put it into culture ethical relativism and normative ethics relativism two basic theory form the theory. 1, culture ethical relativism Culture ethical relativism (also called the description relativism) is just a cultural relativism claims in the moral field expands. Its message is moral beliefs because of cultural different and different, the thesis is descriptive, namely to anthropology that special case study for the foundation. 2, the standard ethical relativism regulating the relativism also think that only a moral standard by group or individual when accept is only effective; The effectiveness of the standard limited to certain scope, and moral code itself also limit in a particular area, as most etiquette principles and customs limited to specific areas. The basic characteristics of the ethical relativism Any kind of ethical relativism theory, performance forms in theory has its own characteristic, however, from the overall opinion; all have the following three basic characteristics 1, separate the moral of universality and particularity dialectical unity 2, deny that moral; absolute and relative in dialectical unity 3, ignoring the moral subjectivity and objectivity in dialectical unity. The perverted moral values On the other hand, the moral, as dependent on and decided to part of the cultural organism, which will moral points, thought moral as materials is substantive, no existence people from the common features, human relationship, and people in the moral existence, validity and value shows the subjectivity of the out side. 2? Moral value of the lost Ethical relativism moral existence and value will be to strengthen the relativity of extreme, and creativity are intentionally or unintentionally covered, forgotten and cancelled, this actually means that people is the starting point of the moral value purpose and end-result forgotten and cancel, 3? Moral principles using the dislocation First, the moral are reality wrong. Second, ignore the moral convergence. Third, application strategies are machinery. The Limitations and Enlightenment about Ethical relativism Theory limitations have two main areas: (1) ethical relativism partition the moral of universality and particularity. (2) It denied the unification of the moral subjectivity and objectivity. (3) Ethical relativism misunderstood the relationship between the moral diversity and moral unity. The limitations of the practical level: Ethical relativism can lead to the moral crisis in society practice of moral life. Different people, different regions, different countries, different culture and different social form have different moral each other. When these various different levels of social group interact with each other, they are unavoidable produce conflict. But it is undeniable that ethical relativism provides us with much beneficial enlightenment: Ethical relativism contributes to cultivate moral freedom of the individuals and groups. It can make us take an open, flexible attitude and contributes to people of the different ethnic groups, cultures and social systems are forming the atmosphere of mutual respect, mutual understanding and mutual tolerance. Ethical relativism deny the unity of subjectivity and objectivity of the moral From the point of view of philosophical epistemology, ethical relativism recognizes most of the subjectivity of morality denies the objectivity of morality; deny that morality is subjective and objective unity. Ancient Greece wise to send an outstanding representative of Protagoras that â€Å"man is the measure of all things,† the well-known proposition, it is deeply hidden affirmed the denial of moral objectivity and moral subjectivity. Socrates â€Å"Virtue is knowledge† proposition more knowledge as a moral standard, the nature and source of Socrates, knowledge is not derived from practical experience, but from human reason, rational but the unique subjective cognitive ability, therefore, Socrates’ ethical thinking its deep implication is undoubtedly fragmented subjectivity and objectivity of morality. Skeptics of ancient Greece in the philosophical level, the objective existence of things and its nature in doubt, from the theoretical logic of prefabricated or pre-ethical thinking relativism, subjectivism direction of development. Modern Rationalism philosophy advocates the universality and inevitability of knowledge does not come from external experience, but from the inherent rationality; Accordingly, the scope of the ethics, rational camp philosophers and ethicists advocates ethical guidelines and the moral principle of universality, necessity, and moral truth of the theory can not be obtained from the experience of moral life, but only from the rational, moral, rational or practical reason. As Rationalism prominent representatives of Immanuel Kant, deontological ethics reflect the significant nature of absolutism, but his ethics and provides us with a real practical guide for the contents of his ethics should be said that formalism, empty, empty form that contains the possibility of changing to keep the subjectivism and relativism. In short, Modern Empiricism and Rationalism ethicists whether morality comes down to experience, emotion or reason, these are all subjective things of the spirit of their original purpose of trying to construct a new social objective, universal moral system, the result is returned to the person’s subjective mental world; actually hope to establish the objectivity of the efforts by the subjectivity, not only fail to achieve their goals, but its subjectivity digestion objectivity. Different social form or cultural system have the requirement of different moral inevitably, and ethical is relative to the social or cultural system. Culture ethical relativism mostly connected with the study of anthropology or compared culture. Anthropologists are usually very suspect the possibility of founding common moral principle, because they have seen mostly the great differences of moral life practice of different nationalities, different regions and different social. Culture ethical relativism advocates â€Å"customs control everything†, â€Å"moral vision changed with the geography â€Å". Different cultures have their own standard about right or wrong and good and evil, so they cannot use a culture standard of right or wrong, good and evil to measure the behavior of people in another culture life, and can’t stand in the standpoint out of a culture (other cultural standpoint) to judge a culture. All social formation which belongs to different culture often has very different things which they agree or oppose in the moral. But in an internal social, most of the people in the social have the moral conscience— common of moral, which is the general knowledge about right and wrong in moral. In a broad sense, culture ethical relativism think the entire moral standard is just the reflection of social habits or social customs; it is means that the moral behavior is just the behavior which is recognized by habits in a specific cultural system. Ethic relativism comes from cultural differentiation and also protect the existence of different culture. For example, as to the popular topic of Western hegemonism. Since modern times, western society first come into capitalist market economy. The development of the market economy will be addressing different country and each nation into the process of integration of world economy. Along with the economic integration, the western countries in a dominant and control status in the aspect of world culture, to other country or nation of culture . Even the western country make penetration of the cultural or conduct hegemonism to other culture or nation. According to the theory of ethical relativism judgment, western culture, ethic standardization and concept of value are outcomes of the interaction and integration of family, social history, cultural, economic, political and other factors among western people. Although these western culture, ethic standardization and concept of value affecting other nation to some degree, western culture could not absolutely beyond boundary to replace local culture. Because every culture have right to exist and protect independence from others. Because ethical relativism support that every culture in the world is equal, we can protect our local culture from the aggression of western culture and hegemonism. Conclusion: Through the above analysis, although ethical relativism has certain limitation, but different society has different moral standards and moral beliefs, and every social moral belief are all deeply influence of the culture. Ethical relativism encourages us to explore it. This enables us to maintain a kind of open mind and not blindly rejects other ethical system or foreign culture. We still support the ethical relativism.

How to Start the Semester Right - Grad Student Study Advice

The most effective way to ensure success in classes -- learning and getting good grades -- is to prepare early and often. Most students recognize the value of preparation in ensuring excellent class performance. Prepare for each class, each test, each assignment. Preparation, however, begins before the first reading assignment and first class. Prepare for the semester and youll be off to a great start. So, how do you start the semester right? Start on the first day of class. Get into the proper mindset by following these three tips. Plan to work. Colleges - and faculty - expect you to put in a significant amount of time over the course of the semester. At the undergraduate level, a 3 credit course generally meets for 45 hours during the semester. In most cases, you are expected to put in 1 to 3 hours for every hour of class time. So, for a class that meets 2.5 hours a week, that means you should plan to spend 2.5 to 7.5 hours outside of class preparing for class and studying the material each week. You likely wont spend the maximum time on every class every week - its a big time commitment! But recognize that some classes will require relatively little prep and others may require additional hours of work. In addition, the amount of time you spend in each class will vary during the semester. Get a head start. This one is simple: Begin early. Then follow the class syllabus and read ahead. Try to stay one reading assignment ahead of the class. Why read ahead? First, this permits you to see the big picture. Readings tend to build on each other and sometimes you may not realize that you dont understand a particular concept until you encounter a more advanced concept. Second, reading ahead gives you wiggle room. Life sometimes gets in the way and we fall behind in reading. Reading ahead permits you to miss a day and still be prepared for class. Likewise, start papers early. Papers nearly always take longer to write than we anticipate, whether its because we cant find sources, have a hard time understanding them, or suffer from writers block. Start early so that you wont feel pressed for time. Mentally Prepare. Get your head in the right place. The first day and week of classes can be overwhelming with new lists of reading assignments, papers, exams, and presentations. Take the time to map out your semester. Write down all classes, due dates, exam dates in your calendar.   Think about how you will organize your time to prepare and get it all done. Plan time off and time for fun. Think about how you will maintain motivation over the semester - how will you reward your successes? By mentally preparing for the semester ahead you put yourself in the position to excel.